Bal Krishna
The developed countries now focus more on commercialisation and standardisation of geographic data, and on the issues related to metadata, data liability, copyright issues on digital data, etc.
If we look at international scenario, especially the developed countries, we find a different story altogether. Probably it is the attitude that matters. The willingness to progress, the innovative initiatives and perhaps more importantly, they have realised the importance of spatial data much ahead of us. And that is why when map users of in India are struggling to have the glimpse of data, the level of debate in US and Europe is not on data availability and accessibility. They are concentrating more on commercialisation and standardisation of geographic data, and on the issues related to metadata, data liability, copyright issues on digital data, etc.
Just to have a glimpse where the world is, consider this. Unlike Survey of India, the United States Geological Survey (USGS) 1:24,000 scale topographic maps are the basic scale maps for the USA and are not protected by any copyright. They comprise some 57,000 sheets. Projections for integrating and updating them into a coherent digital topographic database do not foresee completion until the early 21st century. It is technically and legally feasible for a low-labour cost developing nation to purchase the maps and digital files at minimal cost, update them from commercially available remotely-sensed imagery according to market priorities (there would be no real need for them to deal with remote and sparsely populated areas unless it was profitable), and resell the USA’s own maps back into the internal market, this time claiming commercial copyright (Krysia).
In Europe and US, several initiatives have been taken in development of spatial data infrastructure. Some of these efforts are discussed below:
The US-NSDI
The National Spatial Data Infrastructure (NSDI) is conceived to be an umbrella of policies, practices, standards, organizations, and data that contribute to improved availability and use of high quality geospatial data and technologies. Although the effort to develop the NSDI is being led by the Federal Geographic Data Committee (FGDC), guided by existing federal policies related to data dissemination, liability, and privacy, the NSDI is envisioned to encompass all data producers, managers, and users in the United States, regardless of organisational affiliation (Nancy).
The concept of NSDI started taking shape during early 1990’s, when the Mapping Science Committee (MSC) of the United States National Research Council began to investigate the research responsibilities and future of the National Mapping Division (NMD) of US Geological Survey. The MSC coined the phrase ‘National Spatial Data Infrastructure’ and identified it as the comprehensive and co-ordinated environment for the production, management, dissemination, and use of spatial data. The NSDI was conceived to be the totality of the policies, technology, institutions, data and individuals that were producing and using geospatial data within the US. The MSC report (1993) proposed a number of actions and responsibilities for various agencies and for the Federal Geographic Data Committee (FGDC) which related to their version of NSDI whilst another report a year later urged the use of partnerships in creating the NSDI (MSC 1994). The FGDC team discussed the concept of NSDI with the Clinton Administration. The NSDI was recognised as an idea and means to foster better intergovernmental relations, to empower State and local governments in the development of geospatial data sets and to improve the performance of the Federal Government. In 1994, the national Spatial Data Infrastructure was signed by President Clinton, directing the federal agencies to carry out certain tasks to implement the NSDI. The Executive Order created an environment within which new partnerships were not only encouraged, but required. Perhaps more importantly, it raised the political visibility of geospatial data collection, management and use nationally and internationally.
The NSDI is defined in the Presidential Executive Order as ‘the technology, policies, standards and human resources necessary to acquire, process, store, distribute, and improve utilisation of geospatial data’. The Order and FGDC identified three primary areas to promote development of the NSDI. The first activity area is the development of standards, the second improvement of access to and sharing of data by developing the National Geospatial Data Clearinghouse, and the third is the development of National Digital Geospatial Data Framework. The NSDI Executive Order mandated that federal agencies use all FGDC-adopted standards. A data clearinghouse is operational: nearly all federal agencies, as well as most states and numerous local jurisdictions, have become active users of internet for disseminating geospatial data. Some considerable success has been achieved, especially in formulation of some standards and creation of clearinghouse of metadata (Rhind).
The UK- NGDF
In UK situation is quite different from US. UK government asserts copyright on the data generated by it and insists on cost recovery. Crown copyright is not in itself an obstacle to the distribution of official information on the Internet or in any other machine readable form, but policy requires that costs of provision are met by the end user (Bing). Anyone who wants to have these data has to pay for it. Unlike in US, where data generated by US government automatically comes to public domain, in UK, these data comes to public domain only after the expiry of copyright. Moreover, the information varies greatly in quality between organisations. Government bodies hold valuable data sets. Existing data sets are collected to different specifications so it is not easy to integrate data safely from multiple sources.
In 1995, the National Geospatial Data Framework (NGDF) has been designed as a facilitator with a mission ‘to develop an over-arching UK framework to facilitate and encourage efficient linking, combining and widespread use of geospatial data which is fit for the purpose. The objectives of NGDF are to facilitate and encourage collaboration in the collection, provision and use of geospatial data; facilitate and encourage the use of standards and best practices in the collection, provision and use of geospatial data; and facilitate access to geospatial data. NGDF will set a framework for defining business driven standards, best practice and specifications for data and services, drawing on existing national, European and international work (Rhind).
The ASDI
The Australian Spatial Data Infrastructure (ASDI) will not be a central data set, but rather a distributed network of databases managed by individual custodians with the expertise and incentive to maintain them and committed principles of the custodianship. Commonwealth Spatial Data Committee (CSDC) and Australia New Zealand Information Council (ANZLIC) are promoting actively the concept of ASDI to provide fundamental data needed to support decision making. ANZLIC ASDI model comprises four linked, core components- the institutional framework, fundamental data sets, technical standards and protocols to ensure compatibility, and clearing-house networks. (Commomwealth Position Paper on ASDI).
The EUROGI
EUROGI – the European Umbrella Organisation for Geographic Information, was set up in November 1993, with the aims of defining a European GI policy and the facilitation of a European Geographic Information Infrastructure. Details of EUROGI are provided on page36.
In Other Countries
The situation is changing fast in most of the European countries. Norway is a country that has jurisdiction with a general freedom of information legilation. This gives any member of the public the right to access the “documents” of a specific case, and by regulations this right was in 1985 extended to computerised files, using an analogous document concept. In Germany, traditionally, public agencies have been unwilling to give free access to geographic information available for commercialisation. The situation has changed as private sector has realised the potential of geographic data, and has made pressure bear on the government to make geographic information available. Also, public agencies themselves realised that geographic information may be a source of revenue. In France, the private sector has the right to access to the data made available by the government agencies, and make this subject to commercialisation in either initial form or by adding value to the data. The Geological Institute of Hungary has initiated a national programme for systematic generation of aerial data acquisition and utilisation. The proposal has been integrated as part of the modernisation programme of the government. The programme proposal emphasises the need for a co-ordinated development of a national, integrated system for the distribution of databases, information sharing and a public service for easy access to meta-data through a data clearinghouse service including efficient searching capabilities. In the Netherland, the general impression is that the government agencies charge more than the marginal cost for supplying geographic information to third parties (within public or private sector). The government regularly supplies data to the private sector, while for geographic information the revenue almost exclusively is generated from the sales to other governments (Bing).
In India, when the developed countries set themselves to exploit the potential of spatial data, India cannot afford to be isolated. It must take initiatives to develop a national policy on spatial information. There is no reason to insist to be a follower when one can lead.
References:
- David Rhind, “The relationship between national and international GII”, Geographic Information research at the Millennium GISDATA Final Conference, Le Bischenberg, France, 13-17 September, 1997.
- Krysia Rybaczuc and Michael Blaemore, “Selling government information: A Comparative Perspective on UK and US Developments”.
- Jon Bing, “Commercialisation of Geographic Information in Europe”.
- Nancy Tosta, “Data Policies and the National Spatial Data Infrastructure”, Proceedings of the Conference on Law and Information Policy for Spatial Databases, October 28-29, 1994 Tempe, AZ..
- Commonwealth Position paper on Australian Spatial Development Infrastructure.
